This chapter examines Canada’s evolution as a pluralistic society, tracing the development of official multiculturalism policy and analyzing the changing ethnic, religious, and social demography of contemporary Canada.
Key Concepts
- Canada has always been a pluralistic society with official recognition of group rights dating to the 18th century
- Multiculturalism policy was introduced in 1971 under Pierre Trudeau as “multiculturalism within a bilingual framework”
- Visible minorities now comprise over 27% of Canada’s population, concentrated in major metropolitan areas
- Immigration patterns have shifted dramatically from European sources to Asia, Africa, and the Middle East
- Canada uses a points-based immigration system that eliminated racial discrimination in 1967
The Changing Ethnic Demography of Canada
Historical Foundations
Canada has always been a pluralistic society. Official recognition of group rights extends back to:
- Royal Proclamation of 1763: Referenced rights of “the several Nations or Tribes of Indians”
- Quebec Act of 1774: British recognized religious rights of French Canadians
Exam Alert
The Royal Proclamation (1763) and Quebec Act (1774) are foundational documents for understanding Canada’s early approach to group rights.
The “Founding Peoples” Concept
For most of Canadian history, Canada was settled by European immigrants who displaced and marginalized Indigenous peoples. The so-called “founding peoples” were:
- English-speaking and Protestant
- French-speaking and Catholic
The B&B Commission and Multiculturalism
In the 1960s, the Pearson Liberal government established the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (B&B Commission) to study how Canada should accommodate French-Canadian nationalism.
Canadians with non-British and non-French backgrounds complained that the bicultural view excluded their contribution to Canada.
Official Multiculturalism
On October 8, 1971, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau announced “a policy of multiculturalism within a bilingual framework” in the House of Commons. This was followed by passage of the Multiculturalism Act and creation of a new government department to promote multiculturalism.
Visible Minorities in Canada
“Visible minorities” are defined under the Employment Equity Act.
Key statistics from the 2021 census:
- Visible minorities comprise approximately 27% of the Canadian population
- Toronto: 56% visible minorities
- Vancouver: 54% visible minorities
- Ottawa: 32% visible minorities
- Montreal: 27% visible minorities
Remember
New immigrants who are visible minorities mainly cluster in Canada’s metropolitan areas.
Shifts in Immigration Sources
For most of Canada’s history, the major sources of immigration were Europe and the United States. This has changed dramatically—immigration now comes primarily from:
- Asia
- Africa
- The Middle East
Religious Composition
Canada is still a predominantly Christian society, but this is changing:
- The fastest growing segment is people with no religious affiliation
- 2011: 24% of population had no religious affiliation
- 2019: 26% had no religious affiliation
- 2021 census: Over one-third of the population has no religious affiliation
Changing Family Composition
Canada’s demographic changes extend beyond ethnicity and religion:
- Families are smaller
- More single-parent families
- More couples choosing not to marry
- More same-sex couples
- Increased acceptance of LGBTQ identities (same-sex marriage legalized in 2005; now approximately 75% of Canadians approve)
Official Recognition and Institutionalization of Diversity
Pre-1960s Recognition
Until the 1960s, official recognition extended mainly to:
- French- and English-language communities (s. 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867)
- Catholic and Protestant religions for schooling purposes (s. 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867)
- Indigenous Canadians under s. 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867—but with an expectation that their indigeneity would disappear over time
1960s Expansion of Rights
In the 1960s, government agencies began to lead the way in encouraging Canadians to identify as members of groups deserving recognition:
- Federal and provincial human rights commissions encouraged interest groups to demand the expansion of rights throughout Canadian society
- Official multiculturalism announced in 1971
Media and Cultural Institutions
The CBC, NFB, and Telefilm Canada have helped construct an image of Canada that reflects the changing diversity of Canadian society through programming such as:
- North of 60 (changed attitudes about Indigenous people)
- Little Mosque on the Prairie
- Kim’s Convenience (Canada’s first sitcom led by Asians)
Diversity and Political Representation
Historical Context
In The Vertical Mosaic (1965), John Porter showed that Canada’s political elite was dominated by males from the “founding peoples”—Canadians of British and French origin.
Cabinet Diversity Then and Now
During the first 11 years that Pierre Trudeau was PM, only 3 women served in his governments, and no visible minority or Indigenous Canadian held a cabinet position.
Compare this to the significant diversity in recent federal cabinets.
Supreme Court Representation
Of the 85 individuals ever appointed to the Supreme Court of Canada:
- Most have had British or French ethnic origins
- All but two have come from Judeo-Christian backgrounds
- Justice Michelle O’Bonsawin (Indigenous)
- Justice Mahmud Jamal (Muslim)
- The number of women judges has increased significantly
Models of Integration and Accommodation
Canada’s Global Standing
Canada consistently ranks near the top in diversity rankings among developed countries.
Spectrum of Accommodation Models
Canadian multiculturalism is one possible model among several (see Table 4.1 in text):
| Model | Example | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Deep Diversity Multiculturalism | Netherlands | Maximum state accommodation of minority cultures |
| Moderate Multiculturalism | Canada, United States | Middle ground between extremes |
| Integration without Major Accommodation | France | Minimal official recognition of minority identities |
Remember
The Canadian version is toward the middle of this scale in terms of the degree to which the state is obliged to protect and promote minority cultures and identities.
Queen’s Multiculturalism Policy Index
The Multiculturalism Policy Index (Queen’s University) maps and compares multiculturalism policies across contemporary democracies.
Immigration and Economic Integration
Historical Discrimination
For most of Canadian history, immigration law discriminated against non-Europeans. At the same time, Canada has needed immigration for population growth.
The 1967 Immigration Act Reforms
The Immigration Act finally eliminated racial discrimination and ethnic favouritism in 1967 by introducing a colour-blind points system for evaluating applicants.
Exam Alert
The 1967 Immigration Act reforms and the points system are key policy changes that transformed Canadian immigration.
Immigration Categories
Applicants are divided into categories:
- Economic class
- Family reunification
- Refugee status
- Business class
Points System Criteria
Applicants under the economic category receive points for:
- Proficiency in one or both of Canada’s official languages
- Years of formal education
- Years of work experience
- Age
- Having arranged employment waiting in Canada
- Adaptability (such as already having family in Canada)
Economic Integration Challenges
Economic class immigrants tend to be more educated than Canadian-born citizens of the same age, but this doesn’t guarantee easy entry into the Canadian labour force.
Common Mistake
Don’t assume that higher education levels automatically translate to better economic outcomes for immigrants—credential recognition and other barriers play significant roles.
Factors Affecting Professional Entry
Research indicates four main factors affect the successful entry of immigrants into the professions they held in their countries of origin:
- Language fluency
- Knowledge of Canadian cultural norms affecting workplace success
- Work experience recognizable by prospective Canadian employers
- Professional and occupational credentials accepted in Canada
Discussion Question
The chapter poses: “Do you consider the above factors to be forms of discrimination?” This is a key debate in immigration policy.
Definitions
Visible Minority Defined under the Employment Equity Act; refers to persons, other than Indigenous peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour.
Multiculturalism A policy framework officially adopted by Canada in 1971 recognizing and promoting the cultural diversity of Canadian society within a bilingual framework.
B&B Commission The Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (1963-1969), which studied how Canada should accommodate French-Canadian nationalism.
The Vertical Mosaic John Porter’s 1965 sociological study demonstrating that Canada’s political and economic elite was dominated by those of British and French origin.
Points System A colour-blind immigration evaluation system introduced in 1967 that assesses applicants based on factors like language, education, and work experience rather than national origin.
Deep Diversity A model of multiculturalism (exemplified by the Netherlands) characterized by extensive state accommodation of minority cultures and identities.
Integration without Major Accommodation A model (exemplified by France) emphasizing assimilation into a common national culture with minimal official recognition of minority group identities.