Lecture Notes

Midterm 1 Review

20 min read

I. Foundational Concepts (Chapter 1)

Core Framework: Power, State, and Government

The Nature of Politics

  • Politics arises from scarcity (limited resources)
  • Politics = balancing competing interests and views
  • Fundamentally about power (ability to influence what happens)

Three Faces of Power (MEMORIZE THIS)

  1. Coercion: Force or threat of force (police, prisons, military)
  2. Influence: Persuasion (media, education, rhetoric)
  3. Authority: Legitimacy (recognized right to rule)

Critical Distinction: State vs. Government

  • State: Permanent structures of authority, regime, and community
    • Broader concept; includes “Deep State”
    • Theories of who it serves: Pluralism, Marxism, Feminism
  • Government: Specific people elected to power (temporary)
    • Changes with elections
    • In stable democracies, politics is about changing government, NOT the state

Democracy: A Contested Concept

Key Characteristics

  • Government by consent
  • One person, one vote
  • Competitive elections
  • Protection of minority rights
  • Rule of law (no one above the law)
  • Independent judiciary

Two Forms

  1. Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives
    • Challenge: Voters may be poorly informed/indifferent
  2. Direct Democracy: Citizens vote directly on issues
    • Tools: Referendums, recall elections, citizen assemblies
    • Examples: US and Switzerland use hybrid systems

Two Views of Democracy

  • Process View: Democracy = proper procedures (voting, elections, accountability)
  • Outcome View: Democracy = correct results (fairness, rights protection)
    • Explains why unelected judges make controversial decisions

Legitimacy and Challenges to Authority

Legitimacy: Popular acceptance of a regime’s right to rule

  • You can oppose the government but still accept the state’s legitimacy
  • Maintains social stability

Civil Disobedience: Willfully defying law to defend a cause/principle

  • Philosophical basis: Henry David Thoreau
  • Examples: Idle No More (2013), Freedom Convoy (2022), Extinction Rebellion

Cultural Hegemony: Dominant class makes their values appear “normal”

  • Creates “false consciousness”
  • Controls spread of ideas/information
  • Modern challenge: Disinformation, “Fake News”

Democracy and Inequality

Key Problem: Legal equality ≠ political equality

  • Wealthy have greater access to decision-makers
  • Poor participate less in political life
  • Famous quote: “The law, in its majestic equality, forbids the rich as well as the poor to sleep under bridges…” — Anatole France

Historical Example: 1970 FLQ Crisis

  • Trudeau invoked War Measures Act
  • Famous quote: “Just watch me”
  • Example of state coercion in democracy

II. Political Culture & Ideology (Chapter 2)

Political Culture vs. Ideology

Political Culture: Characteristic values, beliefs, behaviors of a society regarding politics

  • Every society has one
  • Involves weight assigned to competing values (freedom vs. order, equality vs. prestige)

Ideology: Set of beliefs about how society is/should be organized

  • Narrower than political culture
  • Not everyone has a conscious ideology
  • More common among politically active people

The Ideological Spectrum

Left vs. Right (Economic Dimension)

LEFT (Collectivism)RIGHT (Individualism)
Government should intervene in economyIndividuals responsible for own success
Help poor and disadvantagedGovernment too big and intrusive
Unregulated markets favor the privilegedMarket economy serves freedom

Blurred Lines

  • Libertarians: Right economically, Left socially (pro-choice, pro-LGBTQ+, personal freedom)
  • Social Conservatives: Right on social values, may support Left economic policies (environmental protection)

The Historic Trio of Western Democracy

1. Contemporary Liberalism (Welfare Liberalism)

  • Government must intervene to protect disadvantaged
  • Balance individual rights with minority group rights
  • Regulate capitalism to curb corporate power
  • Support: Liberal Party, environmental groups, public sector unions

2. Contemporary Conservatism

  • Government shouldn’t restructure society for collectivist goals
  • Market serves individual freedom
  • Promote traditional social values via family
  • Support: Business, private-sector middle class, Conservative Party

3. Modern Socialism

  • Accept capitalism but demand active state intervention
  • Reduce inequality through social programs
  • Eliminate systemic discrimination (gender, race, ethnicity)
  • Support: NDP, unions, Green Party, academia

Populism (IMPORTANT)

Definition: Appeals to ordinary people against established elites

Canadian Sentiment

  • High agreement: “Elected officials don’t care what people like me think”
  • Majority support for “strong leader” to take country back from rich/powerful
  • Canadian and American populist sentiment nearly identical

The Political Ideas of Canadians

1. Community

  • Sense of belonging and shared purpose
  • Challenges:
    • French-English relations (Conscription Crises, October Crisis, Quebec referenda 1980/1995)
    • Elite accommodation historically managed conflicts
    • Indigenous relations (land claims, self-government; Oka, Ipperwash)

2. Freedom

  • Canada: “Peace, Order, and good Government” (BNA Act, 1867)
  • USA: “Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”
  • Differences overstated, but real
  • Example: Pandemic mask mandates (43% Americans vs. 21% Canadians viewed as freedom violation)

3. Equality

  • Canadians value equality more than Americans
  • Canada: Equality of condition (group rights/equality between groups)
  • USA: Equality of opportunity (individual focus)
  • Canada: “Mosaic” (multiculturalism in Constitution)
  • USA: “Melting pot”
  • Surprising: Americans MORE open to equity hiring than Canadians

4. Attitudes Toward the State

  • Canadians historically more trusting of government
  • Trust in institutions (Police, Elections Canada, Supreme Court) higher in Canada
  • Confidence in Parliament/Congress low in both countries
  • Americans more ideologically polarized (far left/right) than Canadians (who cluster center)

III. Diversity & Multiculturalism (Chapter 4)

Historical Foundation

Early Recognition of Group Rights

  • Royal Proclamation of 1763: Referenced rights of Indigenous nations/tribes
  • Quebec Act of 1774: Recognized religious rights of French Canadians
  • Canada has ALWAYS been pluralistic

The “Founding Peoples” Concept

  • English-speaking and Protestant
  • French-speaking and Catholic
  • Indigenous peoples displaced and marginalized

Official Multiculturalism

The B&B Commission

  • Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (1963-1969)
  • Studied how to accommodate French-Canadian nationalism
  • Non-British/French Canadians complained bicultural view excluded them

October 8, 1971: Official Multiculturalism Announced

  • PM Pierre Trudeau: “multiculturalism within a bilingual framework”
  • Followed by Multiculturalism Act and new government department

Changing Demographics (KNOW THESE STATISTICS)

Visible Minorities (Employment Equity Act definition)

  • 27% of Canadian population (2021)
  • Major cities:
    • Toronto: 56%
    • Vancouver: 54%
    • Montreal: 27%
    • Ottawa: 32%

Immigration Sources Shift

  • Historically: Europe and US
  • Now: Asia, Africa, Middle East

Religious Composition

  • Still predominantly Christian, but changing
  • Fastest growing: No religious affiliation
  • 2021: Over one-third with no religious affiliation

Family Composition Changes

  • Smaller families
  • More single-parent families
  • More couples not marrying
  • More same-sex couples (marriage legalized 2005; ~75% approval)

Political Representation

The Vertical Mosaic (John Porter, 1965)

  • Showed Canada’s political elite dominated by British and French males
  • Pierre Trudeau’s first 11 years: Only 3 women, no visible minority/Indigenous in cabinet
  • Compare to significant diversity in recent federal cabinets

Supreme Court

  • Of 85 appointees: Most British/French origin
  • All but two from Judeo-Christian backgrounds:
    • Justice Michelle O’Bonsawin (Indigenous)
    • Justice Mahmud Jamal (Muslim)

Models of Integration (EXAM IMPORTANT)

ModelExampleDescription
Deep DiversityNetherlandsMaximum state accommodation of minority cultures
Moderate MulticulturalismCanada, USAMiddle ground
Integration without Major AccommodationFranceMinimal official recognition, assimilation into common culture

Canada’s position: Middle of the scale

  • Multiculturalism Policy Index (Queen’s University) maps these policies globally

Immigration Policy

1967 Immigration Act Reforms (CRITICAL DATE)

  • Eliminated racial discrimination and ethnic favoritism
  • Introduced colour-blind points system

Points System Criteria (Economic class)

  • Language proficiency (English/French)
  • Years of formal education
  • Years of work experience
  • Age
  • Arranged employment in Canada
  • Adaptability (family in Canada)

Immigration Categories

  1. Economic class
  2. Family reunification
  3. Refugee status
  4. Business class

Economic Integration Challenges

  • Economic immigrants MORE educated than Canadian-born of same age
  • BUT doesn’t guarantee easy labour force entry
  • Four factors affect professional entry:
    1. Language fluency
    2. Knowledge of Canadian cultural norms
    3. Recognizable work experience
    4. Accepted professional/occupational credentials

Debate: Are these factors discrimination?

IV. Aboriginal Politics (Chapter 16)

Demographics (KNOW THESE NUMBERS)

2021 Census: ~5% of national population

  • First Nations: 1,048,405 (58.0%)
  • Métis: 624,220 (34.5%)
  • Inuit: 70,540 (3.9%)
  • Total Indigenous: 1,807,250 (+9.4% since 2016)

Regional Distribution

  • Nunavut: 85.8% (highest)
  • Northwest Territories: 49.6%
  • Manitoba: 18.1%
  • Saskatchewan: 17.0%
  • Ontario: 2.9%
  • PEI: 2.2% (lowest)

Socioeconomic Disparities (EXAM CRITICAL)

Employment

  • Indigenous people twice as likely to be unemployed
  • Registered Indian on reserve: 47.1% employment
  • Non-Indigenous: 74.1% employment

Income

  • Almost twice as likely to live in low-income household
  • Median income (2020):
    • Non-Indigenous: $50,400
    • Registered Indian on reserve: $32,000

Child Poverty

  • Close to 40% of Indigenous children live in poverty
  • On reserves: approximately 50%
  • National rate: approximately 15%

Education Gap

  • High school completion (ages 25-34):
    • Non-Aboriginal: 91.6%
    • First Nation on-reserve: 50.6%

Child Welfare (CRITICAL STATISTIC)

  • 3% of Indigenous children in foster care
  • 0.2% of non-Indigenous children in foster care
  • Indigenous children = 54% of all children in foster care nationally
  • Manitoba: 90% of children in foster care are Indigenous
  • Indigenous children = only 7.7% of children aged 14 and under

Indian (Status Indian): Legal term under Indian Act, 1876

  • Anyone registered or entitled to be registered
  • Includes those in communities covered by treaties

Three Categories Recognized by Law

  1. First Nations (Indians under Indian Act)
  2. Métis
  3. Inuit

The Reserve System

Structure

  • ~3,400 reserves in Canada
  • ~2/3 in British Columbia
  • Total land: ~28,000 km² (half the size of Nova Scotia)

Legal Framework (Indian Act definition)

  • “…any tract of land set apart by treaty… for the use or benefit of… a particular band of Indians”
  • Legal title belongs to the Crown
  • Managed for benefit of reserve residents
  • Ottawa acts as guardian

Historical Restrictions

  • Band members cannot sell reserve land
  • Ottawa authority over timber licences
  • Reserve land cannot secure loans
  • No legal/commercial transaction without Ottawa’s permission

Population & Conditions

  • Range: Handful to ~13,000 (Six Nations Reserve, Ontario)
  • Most under 1,000 people
  • ~3/4 of reserves uninhabited
  • Higher rates of: suicide, alcoholism, violent death, unemployment, crowded housing, infant mortality
  • Most in rural/remote areas, often no road access

Cultural Preservation Argument

  • Isolation allows socialization into Indigenous values
  • Helps maintain ethnic identity
  • Weaker pressure to assimilate

Three Phases of Indigenous Policy (MEMORIZE THIS EVOLUTION)

Phase 1: ASSIMILATION

  • Goal: Eliminate Indigenous cultures, absorb into Euro-Canadian society
  • Indian Act made self-governance impossible

Key Assimilationist Measures:

  • Limited self-government (band councils/chiefs, 3-year terms)
  • Banned Indigenous religious ceremonies and dances
  • Banned potlatch ceremony
  • Banned Native languages in residential schools
  • Automatic enfranchisement upon becoming lawyer, minister, doctor, or receiving university degree
  • No automatic Canadian citizenship for status Indians until 1960

Phase 2: INTEGRATION

  • Goal: Remove barriers to full participation, but not necessarily preserve distinct status

The 1969 White Paper Proposed:

  • Dismantle Indian Affairs bureaucracy
  • End reserve system
  • Abolish different legal status for Indians
  • Transfer responsibility to provinces

Indigenous Response:

  • Harold Cardinal: “thinly disguised programme of extermination through assimilation” (The Unjust Society)
  • Offensive position on treaty obligations
  • WHITE PAPER WAS REJECTED

Phase 3: SELF-DETERMINATION

  • Goal: Indigenous peoples’ right to control their own political, economic, cultural development

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) 1996 Recommendations:

  • Recognize Aboriginal sovereignty (reference: Royal Proclamation, 1763)
  • Official admission of wrongs
  • Aboriginal third order of government (alongside federal/provincial)
  • Inherent right to self-government is treaty right (guaranteed by constitution)
  • Dual citizenship: Canadian + Aboriginal community
  • Aboriginal Parliament (advisory role)
  • Aboriginal representatives in constitutional talks with veto power
  • Increased spending

RCAP Recommendations Acted Upon:

  • Nunavut created (1998): ~90% Inuit, example of self-government
  • Residential school reparations paid
  • Government apologies: PM Harper (June 2008), PM Trudeau (April 2022)

CRITICAL POINT: No federal government has accepted divided sovereignty

  • Self-determination ≠ sovereignty
  • Relationship = three overlapping spheres (Indigenous autonomy, shared space, state space)

Residential Schools

Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement (2007)

  • Addressed legacy of system
  • Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Senator Murray Sinclair)
  • System designed to separate children from families/cultures
  • Banned languages and cultural practices

Land Rights & Aboriginal Title

Royal Proclamation, 1763

  • Established First Nations possessed rights to lands
  • Forbade settlers from claiming Indigenous lands
  • Required land purchases through Crown

Key Court Cases (KNOW THESE)

CaseYearSignificance
Calder v. Attorney General of BC1973First recognition of Aboriginal title in Canadian law
Delgamuukw v. British Columbia1997Defined Aboriginal title, oral history as evidence
Tsilhqot’in Nation v. BC2014First declaration of Aboriginal title to specific lands
Ktunaxa Nation v. BC2017Religious freedom and development
Cowichan Tribes v. Canada2025Aboriginal title over private lands

Importance: Land rights crucial for survival of Indigenous culture

  • Traditional lifestyles (hunting, fishing)
  • Treaty rights recognized for this reason

Public Opinion on Indigenous Issues (2023-2025 Data)

Sense of Belonging (June 2021)

  • Indigenous feeling “treated as outsider”: 30%
  • Caucasian: 17%
  • Visible Minority: 29%

Views on Racism

  • Indigenous viewing Canada as racist: 36%
  • Caucasian: 32%
  • Visible Minority: 42%

Indigenous Status (2023)

  • “Indigenous have inherently unique status because ancestors were here first”: 55%
  • “Should have no special status”: 45%

Legacy of Colonialism (2023)

  • “Huge problem”: 19%
  • “A problem among others”: 35%
  • “Not really/Not at all”: 40%

Integration vs. Cultural Preservation (2025)

GroupIntegrate (even if lose culture)Strengthen culture (even if apart)
Canada Total46%54%
Total Indigenous32%68%
First Nation22%78%

Infrastructure Projects on Traditional Territory (2025)

  • Should First Nations have final say?
    • NDP: 55%
    • Liberal: 30%
    • CPC: 11%
    • BQ: 30%
  • Most Canadians (40%): Government/companies decide but must meaningfully consult

V. Podcast 1: Is China More Democratic Than Canada?

Senator Yuen Pau Woo’s Three Arguments (2021)

Context: Opposed Senate motion condemning China’s treatment of Uyghurs

Argument 1: China’s Regime May Be Equally/More Legitimate

TWO TYPES OF LEGITIMACY (CRITICAL CONCEPT):

Input Legitimacy: HOW representatives are selected

  • Elections, free and fair processes
  • Western democracies emphasize this

Output Legitimacy: RESULTS produced by government

  • Stability, prosperity, equality
  • Citizens also confer legitimacy based on outcomes

Woo’s Claim: Democratic elections haven’t consistently produced better outcomes

  • Rising income/wealth inequality
  • Stagnating median incomes
  • Growing societal tension
  • Rise of populist leaders with “illiberal instincts”

Argument 2: Chinese Citizens View Their System as More Democratic

Poll Data Cited:

  • China: 70% agreed their country is democratic
  • Canada: 65%
  • India: 60%
  • USA: 50%
  • Chinese expressed GREATER satisfaction with status quo than Canadians/Americans

Argument 3: Canada Lacks Moral Authority

  • Canada’s historical treatment of Indigenous peoples:
    • Mass arrests on suspicion
    • Forced attendance at residential schools
    • Sterilization programs
    • Forced relocation
  • “The fact that China does not share our view of individual freedoms… is not a basis to lecture the Chinese”

Critique of Senator Woo

Strongest Point

  • China’s legitimacy (popular acceptance) IS genuinely high
  • Model “delivers the goods” for majority
  • BUT: Doesn’t deliver for Uyghurs, Hong Kong pro-democracy advocates, dissidents

Weakest Point

  • High popular legitimacy ≠ democracy
  • People can be:
    • Misled by state propaganda/censorship
    • Living in cultures prioritizing collective over individual rights
    • Believing their views are ignored

CRITICAL DISTINCTION: Public satisfaction ≠ actual democratic governance

How Democracy Is Actually Measured

Major Organizations DON’T Use Public Opinion:

  • Amnesty International
  • Human Rights Watch
  • Freedom House
  • Economist Intelligence Unit’s “Democracy Index”
  • Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

UN Position: Promotes democratic governance as values/principles

  • Greater participation, equality, security
  • Human development
  • Respect for human rights/freedoms
  • Freely expressed will of people
  • Accountability of decision-makers
  • Equal rights for women/men
  • Freedom from discrimination

The Democratic Difference: Accountability and Redress

In Democracies:

  • Dark chapters discussed openly
  • Accountability assigned
  • Redress made for injustices

Example:

  • Canada: Truth and Reconciliation Commission for residential schools
  • China: No equivalent for Tiananmen Square (1989) or other actions
  • PM Trudeau: “Where is China’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission?”

VI. Podcast 2: Indigenous Rights and the Rule of Law

Two 2020 Confrontations

1. Nova Scotia Fishing Dispute

  • R. v. Marshall (1999): Supreme Court confirmed Indigenous treaty right to fish outside permitted season
  • October 2020: Violence erupted
  • Non-Indigenous fishers claimed Indigenous fishing jeopardized commercial viability
  • Property owned by Indigenous fishers SET ON FIRE

2. Caledonia Land Dispute (Main Focus)

  • Near Caledonia, Ontario (south of Hamilton)
  • Roots: Before Confederation
  • 2006: Six Nations protesters occupied housing development
  • Claim: Historical right to land never extinguished by treaty/consent
  • Ongoing: Violence, arrests, police stand-offs, court injunctions, negotiations
  • STILL UNRESOLVED (as of October 2020)

Competing Definitions of Rule of Law

United Nations Definition A principle where all persons, institutions, entities (including State) are:

  • Accountable to publicly promulgated laws
  • Equally enforced
  • Independently adjudicated
  • Consistent with international human rights norms

Supreme Court of Canada (1998 Quebec Secession Reference)

  • Provides stable, predictable, ordered society
  • Shields individuals from arbitrary state action

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

  • Formal: Generality, clarity, publicity, stability, prospectivity of norms
  • Procedural: Administration processes, independent courts/judiciary
  • Citizens must respect legal norms even when disagreeing
  • Law same for everyone
  • No one above the law

Constitution Act, 1982 (Preamble) “Canada is founded upon principles that recognize the supremacy of God and the rule of law”

The Six Nations Perspective

Explicit Rejection of Canadian Authority:

  • “Ontario Provincial Police officers mean nothing to us. We are governed only by the Great Law.”
  • “That’s the Canadian court system, that’s not us. That just has no bearing on why we are here.”
  • “What part of WE ARE NOT CANADIAN is it that they don’t understand?… The laws of Canada do not apply. We are a sovereign nation.”

Laura DeVries’ Analysis (Conflict in Caledonia)

  • For Canada: Six Nations flags/protests = direct action against developers and Canadian laws
  • For Six Nations: Continued building permits = denial of nationhood, law, and land rights
  • Rule of law means something different to people who view the laws as illegitimate

Two Competing Views on Rule of Law

Traditional View: Alan Borovoy

  • General Counsel, Canadian Civil Liberties Association (1968-2009)
  • After 1990 Oka Crisis, spoke at law schools
  • Found it “shocking and dangerous” that law students believed Mohawk people were right to take up arms
  • Rule of law must be respected in a democracy

Progressive/Revisionist View: David Dyzenhaus

  • Professor of Law and Philosophy, University of Toronto
  • On Coastal GasLink Pipeline protests (BC)
  • Acts of lawbreaking CAN BE consistent with rule of law if they constitute civil disobedience
  • Civil disobedience: Disobedience to particular laws to alert public/authorities to injustice
  • Argument: Canadian state NOT living up to rule of law by enforcing “settler-colonial rules” and disrespecting Crown commitments

The Central Tension

Canadian State PerspectiveIndigenous Sovereignty Perspective
All persons subject to Canadian lawIndigenous nations sovereign, not subject to Canadian law
Courts have jurisdictionCanadian courts have no bearing on Indigenous land rights
Legal title under Canadian law validHistorical rights never extinguished by treaty
Rule of law requires complianceLaws built on colonial dispossession are illegitimate

KEY QUESTION: Whose understanding of the rule of law should prevail?

VII. Key Definitions for Quick Review

Chapter 1 Essential Terms

  • Politics: Balancing competing interests arising from scarcity
  • Power: Ability to influence (three faces: coercion, influence, authority)
  • State vs. Government: Permanent structures vs. temporary elected officials
  • Legitimacy: Popular acceptance of regime’s right to rule
  • Civil Disobedience: Willfully defying law to defend cause/principle
  • Rule of Law: All subject to law, including government
  • Representative vs. Direct Democracy: Elect officials vs. vote directly

Chapter 2 Essential Terms

  • Political Culture: Characteristic values/beliefs of society regarding politics
  • Ideology: Beliefs about how society is/should be organized
  • Collectivism (Left): Government intervention to help disadvantaged
  • Individualism (Right): Personal responsibility, limited government
  • Contemporary Liberalism: Government intervention, regulate capitalism
  • Contemporary Conservatism: Market freedom, traditional values
  • Populism: Champions common person against elites
  • Elite Accommodation: Leaders of different groups cooperate to manage conflict

Chapter 4 Essential Terms

  • Visible Minority: Non-Caucasian/non-white (Employment Equity Act)
  • Multiculturalism: Policy framework (1971) recognizing diversity within bilingual framework
  • B&B Commission (1963-1969): Studied French-Canadian nationalism accommodation
  • The Vertical Mosaic (Porter, 1965): Study showing elite dominated by British/French
  • Points System (1967): Colour-blind immigration evaluation
  • Deep Diversity vs. Integration without Accommodation: Spectrum of multiculturalism models

Chapter 16 Essential Terms

  • Indian/Status Indian: Legal term (Indian Act, 1876)
  • Reserve: Land set apart by treaty, Crown holds title
  • Assimilation: Eliminate Indigenous cultures
  • Integration: Remove barriers without preserving distinct status
  • Self-Determination: Indigenous control of own development
  • RCAP (1996): Recommended fundamental restructuring, self-government
  • White Paper (1969): Rejected proposal to eliminate reserves/special status
  • Aboriginal Title: Inherent land rights predating European arrival
  • Nunavut (1998): Territory, 90% Inuit, self-government example

Podcast Terms

  • Input Legitimacy: Process of selecting representatives (elections)
  • Output Legitimacy: Results/performance of government
  • Sovereignty: Supreme authority, right to self-govern
  • Treaty Rights: Rights from historical Crown agreements (Constitution Act s.35)
  • R. v. Marshall (1999): Affirmed Mi’kmaq fishing rights

VIII. Critical Dates & Events to Memorize

DateEvent/Policy
1763Royal Proclamation (Indigenous rights to land)
1774Quebec Act (French religious rights)
1867British North America Act (“Peace, Order, good Government”)
1876Indian Act
1960Status Indians gain Canadian citizenship
1965John Porter’s The Vertical Mosaic published
1967Immigration Act reforms (points system, end racial discrimination)
1969White Paper (rejected by Indigenous leaders)
1970FLQ Crisis (Trudeau, War Measures Act)
1971Official Multiculturalism announced (October 8)
1973Calder case (first recognition of Aboriginal title)
1990Oka Crisis
1996RCAP report
1997Delgamuukw case (defined Aboriginal title)
1998Nunavut created
1999R. v. Marshall (fishing rights)
2005Same-sex marriage legalized
2006Caledonia land dispute begins
2007Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement
2008PM Harper apology for residential schools (June)
2013Idle No More
2014Tsilhqot’in case (first declaration of title to specific lands)
2022Freedom Convoy; PM Trudeau apology (April)

IX. Exam Preparation Strategies

Likely Exam Question Types

1. Definition Questions

  • Be able to define AND give examples
  • Distinguish between similar terms (State vs. Government, Assimilation vs. Integration)

2. Compare and Contrast

  • Input vs. Output legitimacy
  • Representative vs. Direct democracy
  • Collectivism vs. Individualism
  • Three phases of Indigenous policy
  • Models of multiculturalism
  • Canadian vs. American political culture

3. Application Questions

  • Apply concepts to real examples (FLQ Crisis = coercion; Freedom Convoy = civil disobedience)
  • Analyze current events through ideological lenses

4. Critical Analysis

  • Evaluate Senator Woo’s arguments
  • Debate: Do Indigenous nations have sovereignty?
  • Assess: Is Canada truly multicultural or assimilationist?

5. Know the Statistics

  • Visible minorities in major cities
  • Indigenous socioeconomic disparities
  • Child welfare statistics
  • Public opinion data

Cross-Chapter Themes to Master

1. Legitimacy (appears in Chapters 1, 2, Podcast 1)

  • Different sources (input vs. output)
  • Can exist without democracy
  • Cultural hegemony as tool for maintaining

2. Civil Disobedience (appears in Chapters 1, 16, Podcast 2)

  • As challenge to authority
  • Examples across different contexts
  • Debate over effectiveness/appropriateness

3. Rule of Law (appears in Chapters 1, 16, Podcast 2)

  • Different interpretations
  • Conflict with Indigenous sovereignty claims
  • Accountability and redress as key features

4. Equality (appears in Chapters 1, 2, 4, 16)

  • Legal vs. political equality
  • Individual vs. group rights
  • Equality of opportunity vs. equality of condition
  • Canada vs. USA approaches

5. Diversity and Accommodation (appears in Chapters 2, 4, 16)

  • Elite accommodation (French-English)
  • Multiculturalism models
  • Indigenous self-determination
  • Changing demographics

Study Priorities (Weight Your Time)

HIGH PRIORITY (Likely heavily tested)

  • Three faces of power
  • State vs. Government distinction
  • Three phases of Indigenous policy (evolution)
  • Input vs. Output legitimacy
  • Ideological spectrum (Left/Right, Historic Trio)
  • Multiculturalism models
  • Indigenous socioeconomic statistics
  • Key court cases (Calder, Marshall, Tsilhqot’in)

MEDIUM PRIORITY

  • Canadian vs. American political culture
  • Demographics of diversity
  • Public opinion data
  • Reserve system details
  • Immigration policy history

LOWER PRIORITY (But still know)

  • Specific examples of civil disobedience
  • Cabinet/Supreme Court composition details
  • Regional Indigenous population distributions

Final Exam Tips

  1. Use the correct terminology: Don’t say “Native” when you mean “Indigenous”; don’t confuse “State” with “Government”

  2. Provide specific examples: Don’t just define civil disobedience—mention Idle No More, Freedom Convoy, or Oka

  3. Show evolution: Demonstrate understanding of how policies changed over time (Assimilation → Integration → Self-Determination)

  4. Connect concepts: Show how legitimacy relates to authority, how multiculturalism connects to political culture, etc.

  5. Know the debates: Be able to argue BOTH sides (e.g., Should Indigenous nations have sovereignty? Is China’s output legitimacy enough?)

  6. Memorize key dates: 1763, 1867, 1967, 1971, 1996, 1998 are especially important

  7. Understand statistics in context: Don’t just memorize 54%—know that’s Indigenous children in foster care, which is disproportionate given they’re only 7.7% of children

  8. Distinguish between descriptive and normative: Know what IS (Canada has inequality) vs. what SHOULD BE (debatable)

X. Practice Questions

Short Answer Practice

  1. Explain the three faces of power and give an example of each in Canadian politics.

  2. Distinguish between the state and government. Why is this distinction important for understanding democracy?

  3. What is the difference between input legitimacy and output legitimacy? Use Senator Woo’s argument about China as an example.

  4. Describe the evolution of Indigenous policy in Canada through three phases. What was the goal of each phase?

  5. Compare and contrast collectivism and individualism. Where do libertarians fit on this spectrum?

Essay Practice

  1. “High popular legitimacy does not necessarily mean a country is democratic.” Evaluate this statement using examples from Podcast 1 and Chapter 1.

  2. Analyze the tension between the rule of law and Indigenous sovereignty claims. Whose interpretation should prevail? Use examples from the Caledonia dispute.

  3. To what extent has Canada succeeded in implementing multiculturalism? Consider the models of integration, demographic changes, and political representation.

  4. Compare Canadian and American political culture on the dimensions of freedom, equality, and attitudes toward the state. Are the differences as significant as commonly believed?

  5. “The reserve system perpetuates dependency and poverty among Indigenous peoples.” Evaluate this claim, considering both socioeconomic data and arguments for cultural preservation.

Application Questions

  1. The Freedom Convoy (2022) involved protesters blocking Ottawa streets to protest COVID-19 mandates. Analyze this event using concepts of: civil disobedience, legitimacy, rule of law, and populism.

  2. A provincial government wants to build a pipeline through traditional Indigenous territory. The band council opposes it. Using concepts from Chapter 16 and Podcast 2, analyze the competing claims to authority.

  3. An immigrant with a medical degree from India is told they must complete additional training in Canada before practicing. Using Chapter 4 concepts, is this discrimination or legitimate credentialing? Explain both perspectives.

Good luck on your midterm!

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