Final Exam Review

Final Exam Review — POLS-1300

Exam: Thursday, April 9, 2026 · 7:00–8:40 PM · Ctr For Engineering Innovation 1100 Coverage: Units 1, 5, 6, 7, 8 · Chapters 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10 Format: 10 MC (10 pts) + 20 Fill-in-the-Blank (40 pts) + 15/20 Definitions (30 pts) = 80 marks (40% of grade)

Scoring Notes

• Fill-in-the-blank: some questions have two blanks — each part worth 1 mark. If one answer is wrong and one correct → half credit only. Don’t guess two answers unless certain both are right.
• Definitions: choose 15 out of 20. Must show complete understanding. Aim for a clear definition + distinguishing feature + example.

---

Sample Exam Questions (With Answers)

Multiple Choice — Sample Q1

A constitutional system in which local or regional governments’ structure, responsibilities, and decisions are subject to central government oversight and control is called a:

• a. Republic
• b. Unitary state ✓
• c. Federal state
• d. Constitutional state

Why: In a unitary state, only the central government is specified in the constitutional charter. Local governments have only those powers delegated from the center. Contrast: in a federal state, subnational governments have constitutionally protected autonomy — the center cannot simply override them.

Fill-in-the-Blank — Sample Q1

A study that compares cases that are alike in many ways but have a key difference is a _______ _______ _______ study or design.

Answer: Most Similar Cases (also acceptable: Most-Similar-Systems / MSS)

Why: The MSS design controls for many variables by choosing similar cases, so that the one key difference can be analyzed as a potential cause of different outcomes. Example: North Korea vs. South Korea (same culture, geography, history — but different political and economic institutions).

Definition — Sample Q1: Rigid Constitution

Rigid Constitution: A constitution that is difficult to amend. Constitutional amendments can happen, but they require a supermajority to pass — this can mean agreement of a specific number of provincial/state governments and more than 50% support in the legislature. This is the opposite of a flexible constitution (which can be changed by simple majority). Example: The United States Constitution requires a 2/3 vote in both houses of Congress plus 3/4 of state legislatures — it has been amended only 27 times since 1787.

---

Unit 1 — Studying Comparative Politics (Chapters 1–2)

What Is Comparative Politics?

Comparative politics is the subfield of political science that analyzes multiple cases using the comparative method. It goes beyond description to explain why and how things happen in the public realm, using case studies to find patterns across political systems.

Two approaches:

• Empirical study — based on facts and observations (“What factors contributed to this election outcome?“)
• Normative arguments — concerned with how things should be (“What is the best political system?“)

The Comparative Method — 7 Steps

Step	Content
1. Develop a Question	Focus on why and how; open-ended; aware of bias
2. Level of Analysis	State, groups within states, or events
3. Select Case Studies	See table below
4. Develop Concepts	Building blocks (nationalism, democracy, populism)
5. Operationalize Variables	Define concepts so they can be measured
6. Develop a Hypothesis	ID dependent/independent variables; must be falsifiable
7. Test, Conclude, Build Theory	Draw conclusions; revise; generalize

Case Study Designs

Exam Alert

Know all six types — the fill-in-the-blank answer for “Most Similar Cases” is a direct test of this table.

Design	Description
Single case study	In-depth examination of one case
Within-case comparison	Comparison of elements within a single case
Two or more country comparison	Direct comparison between multiple countries
Most-Similar-Cases (MSS)	Cases share many characteristics; differ on one key variable. Tests what that difference causes.
Most-Different-Cases (MDS)	Cases differ greatly; share one key variable. Tests what that variable produces across contexts.
Regional / area study	Focus on a specific geographic region

MSS in Practice

North Korea vs. South Korea: same Korean culture, geography, and heritage — but differ on economic/political institutions → leads to dramatically different development outcomes. The shared characteristics are “held constant” so the institutional difference can be analyzed as a cause.

MDS in Practice

Brazil vs. South Africa (Unit 6): very different in history, geography, racial composition, and colonial legacy — yet both adopted very similar long written constitutions in the late 1980s–90s.

Types of Reasoning

Type	Direction	Example
Deductive	General theory → test with cases	”Governments are re-elected if the economy is strong” → examine specific elections
Inductive	Specific observations → build general theory	Observe O’Toole lost leadership after election loss → develop theory about leadership tenure

Data Types

	Quantitative	Qualitative
Data	Numbers, statistics	Interviews, documents, policy papers
Study size	Large-N	Small-N
Approach	Find patterns in large datasets	Detailed examination of fewer cases

Mixed-method studies combine both.

Causation Problems

Exam Alert

Know all four causation problems — these are frequently tested in definitions and fill-in-the-blank.

Problem	Description
Reverse causation	The causal arrow points the wrong way: Y → X instead of X → Y
Endogeneity	X and Y cause each other mutually ($X\leftrightarrow Y$) — vicious or virtuous circles
Intervening variable	Z mediates: $X\to Z\to Y$ (e.g., money → advertising → electoral success)
Spurious correlation / Missing variable	Z causes both X and Y; X–Y correlation is false

Research process: $\text{Question}\to \text{Hypotheses}\to \text{Testing}\to \text{Thesis}\to \text{Theory}$ (with revision loops when hypotheses are disconfirmed)

Tendency statements — comparative politics rarely makes absolute claims; researchers seek tendencies across cases.

---

Unit 5 — Political Economy and Development (Chapters 4–5)

Key Economic Measures

Measure	Definition
GDP	Total market value of all goods/services produced within a country’s borders in one year
GNI	Total income earned by a country’s producers regardless of where they operate
GDP per capita	GDP ÷ population — average income per person
PPP	Purchasing Power Parity — adjusts income for cost-of-living differences across countries
Gini coefficient	Measures income inequality: 0 = perfect equality → 1 = maximum inequality
Inflation	Rising general price level
Deflation	Falling price level (associated with depressions)
Hyperinflation	Extreme inflation — historically caused regime collapse

Fiscal policy = government taxing and spending. Monetary policy = money supply and currency value (managed by central banks). These are different tools managed by different institutions.

The Shadow Economy

Type	Legality	Examples
Grey market	Legal goods, illegal/unregulated transaction	Unlicensed vendors, unreported cash work
Black market	Illegal goods or heavily restricted transactions	Drug trade, arms trafficking

Shadow economies represent 15–40% of GDP across countries. They cause GDP underestimation, tax base erosion, and signal weak state capacity.

Common Mistake

“Informal economy” ≠ “criminal economy.” Most informal activity involves legal goods sold through unregulated channels (grey market), not black market crime.

The Market-State Debate

	Neoliberal / Market-Led	Statist / State-Led
Cause of success	Free markets, minimal state	Strong capable state intervention
Cause of failure	Too much state	Weak/low-quality state
Policy recommendation	Reduce state size	Build state capacity
Example countries	UK, US	South Korea, Japan

Current consensus: Both markets and capable states are needed. The quality of state intervention matters more than its quantity.

Three Economic Functions of States

1. Economic management — fiscal and monetary policy; business cycle management
2. Human capital investment — public education, public health, R&D
3. Welfare state provision — pensions, unemployment insurance, health care, social assistance

Why Do Welfare States Emerge?

Theory	Argument
Cultural change	Values shifted; the state came to be expected to solve social problems (Marshall’s citizenship rights)
Industrial capitalism	Disrupts traditional institutions; state steps in to manage dislocation (Polanyi, Schumpeter)
Mobilization & political action	Labor unions + allied politicians negotiate welfare compromise; explains variation (Esping-Andersen’s 3 worlds)
International learning	Countries observe and emulate each other (e.g., Brazil’s Bolsa Família spreading globally)

Esping-Andersen’s Three Welfare Regimes:

1. Liberal (UK, US) — modest benefits, market-oriented, significant private provision
2. Corporatist (France, Germany) — status-based benefits tied to employment
3. Social democratic (Scandinavia) — universal, comprehensive, high de-commodification

Key Ideological Positions

Neoliberalism (Hayek, Friedman): Free markets as spontaneous order; minimal state; privatization; free trade; low taxes; monetarism; supply-side economics.

Conservatism (Burke): Prioritizes social order and tradition; gradual reform; accepts some welfare provision to preserve social stability (e.g., Bismarck’s welfare state).

The New Right (Thatcher, Reagan): Fused neoliberalism + social conservatism. Economic: tax cuts, privatization, union-busting, deregulation. Social: law and order, traditional family values. TINA (“There Is No Alternative”).

Marxism: Capitalism is a system of exploitation based on surplus value extraction; the state serves the ruling class; welfare states co-opt workers rather than liberate them; crises are structural.

Exam Alert

Bismarck (a conservative) built the first welfare state — to preserve social order, not because of progressive ideology. This shows that conservatism and neoliberalism are historically distinct traditions that only merged in the 1980s New Right.

Four Theories of Development (Chapter 5)

Category	Theory	Key Scholars/Concepts
1. Institutions — Market-State	Market-led vs. state-led development	Washington Consensus (IMF/WB); “Asian Tigers” (state-led success); Kohli’s chariot metaphor
2. Institutions — Beyond Market-State	Property rights, path dependence, colonialism	Acemoglu & Robinson (colonial origins); rational vs. historical institutionalism
3. Culture	Social capital, trust, religion, work ethic	Fukuyama (trust); Weber (Protestant ethic); Tocqueville (associational life); bonding vs. bridging capital
4. Systems/Structures	Marxism, dependency theory, world-systems, geography	Wallerstein (core-periphery-semi-periphery); Diamond (guns/germs/steel); ISI vs. export-led growth

North Korea vs. South Korea — MSS Case

Feature	South Korea	North Korea
System	Market-oriented; strong state-led industrial policy	Command economy; communist
Institutions	Strong property rights, export-led growth, conditional state support	Inward-looking; no markets
GDP/capita (c. 2015)	~$37,700	~$1,700
Outcome	High development	Poverty, periodic famines

Leading theory: Institutional — quality of economic and political institutions. Cultural explanations are weak because both countries share Korean heritage.

---

Unit 6 — Constitutions (Chapter 8)

What Is a Constitution?

The foundational charter and “law above all other law.” Establishes government structure, expresses founding principles. Symbolizes the social contract — “the people” confer authority in exchange for order and rule of law.

Exam Alert

A constitution does not guarantee rights will be respected in practice. Even authoritarian regimes maintain constitutions — sometimes with more enumerated rights on paper than democratic ones (e.g., the Soviet Union guaranteed education, housing, and health care — none of which are in the U.S. Constitution).

Constitutional Design — Three Key Elements

1. Federalism vs. Unitarism — how power is divided between levels of government
2. Separation of powers — how power is divided among branches
3. Judicial review — whether courts can rule on constitutionality

Codified vs. Uncodified Constitutions

Type	Definition	Examples
Codified	All core rules in one supreme document; stands above ordinary legislation	USA, Germany, France, Brazil, South Africa
Uncodified	Rules dispersed across multiple statutes, precedents, and conventions	United Kingdom, New Zealand, Israel

Common Mistake

Codified ≠ Rigid; Uncodified ≠ Flexible. These are two separate dimensions. The UK is both uncodified and flexible — but these are separate properties.

Flexible vs. Rigid Constitutions

Type	Definition	Example
Rigid	Requires supermajorities or subnational approval to amend	United States (2/3 Congress + 3/4 state legislatures)
Flexible	Can be changed by simple majority of the legislature	United Kingdom

UK Multi-Document Constitution: Magna Carta (1215) → Bill of Rights (1689) → Acts of Settlement (1701) → ongoing Acts of Parliament + common law. No single document; Parliament is sovereign.

Judicial Review vs. Parliamentary Sovereignty

Feature	Judicial Review	Parliamentary Sovereignty
Who interprets constitution?	Courts / constitutional courts	Legislature itself
Can laws be struck down?	Yes	No
Example	United States	United Kingdom

Judicial activism — courts actively reinterpret legislation; critics argue it takes decisions out of the democratic process. Hirschl’s juristocracy thesis: expanding judicial review tends to protect elite interests, not expand democratic rights.

Federalism vs. Unitarism

Federalism: Multiple levels of government with constitutionally protected autonomy for subnational governments (states, provinces, regions). Features: upper chamber with territorial representation (Senate), full legislative/executive branches at subnational level.

Unitarism: Central government is predominant; subnational governments have only delegated powers. Maxim: “The republic is one and indivisible” (France). Common where: small countries, ethnic/linguistic homogeneity, French colonial heritage.

Exam Alert

Only ~20 of 200 countries are federal, but they include the world’s most populous countries (India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil). Federalism is NOT inherently more democratic than unitarism.

Federal Systems — Causes and Effects

Question	Arguments FOR federalism	Arguments AGAINST federalism
Social stability	Gives groups a stake in the system; regional autonomy reduces secession pressure	May exacerbate differences; encourages regional identity (Spain/Catalonia, Nigeria)
Democratic rights	Incorporates diverse groups	States’ rights can conflict with universal constitutional rights (abortion debate, USA)
Economy	Interstate competition; local information advantage (Oates’s Decentralization Theorem); Tiebout sorting	Soft budget constraint; fiscal irresponsibility; Senate malapportionment (Brazil, USA)

Key scholarly arguments:

• Riker (1964): Federalism results from bargains among regional actors; surprisingly little difference in practice between federal and unitary states.
• Stepan (1999): “Coming together” vs. “holding together” federalism; many cases are asymmetrical (Canada/Quebec as “distinct society”).
• Rodden & Wibbels (2002): Whether federalism is good economically depends on whether states rely on own-source taxes (responsible) vs. central transfers (irresponsible).

Brazil and South Africa — MDS Case

Exam Alert

This is the Most-Different-Systems design applied to constitutions.

Feature	Brazil (1988)	South Africa (1996)
Context	Emerging from military rule	Emerging from apartheid
Primary conflict	Civil-military relations	Racial injustice

Yet both constitutions are remarkably similar: ~245 articles each, strong judicial review (constitutional courts), federal structure, extensive rights in main text, aspirational goals.

Four hypotheses for convergence:

1. Historical timing — both constitutions written at a similar modern moment
2. Powerful actors — both transitions required guarantees for departing non-democratic government
3. Modeled on others — both writers looked to Germany, Mexico, etc.
4. Key similarities — both are racially diverse, high-inequality, large territories

Constitutional Change Drivers

• War and military defeat, revolution, regime collapse
• Transition from authoritarianism / decolonization / independence
• Social crisis (South Africa post-apartheid)
• Gradual amendment (U.S. — abolishing slavery, extending suffrage)

Mechanisms: formal amendment, judicial reinterpretation, constitutional conventions, full replacement (requires new constituent assembly — signals a break with the past).

---

Unit 7 — Political Executives and Bureaucracies (Chapter 9)

What Is the Executive?

The executive executes and administers laws. Holds the “pen” (lawmaking), “pistol” (military command), and some control over the “purse” (budget).

Head of State — country’s symbolic representative (monarchs, ceremonial presidents). Head of Government — responsible for forming governments and implementing policy (prime ministers, most presidents).

In presidential systems, one person often combines both. In parliamentary systems, these roles are typically separated.

Three Executive Structures

Type	Selection	Legislature Relationship	Examples
Presidential	Directly elected by voters	Independent; fixed term	USA, Brazil, Mexico, Nigeria
Parliamentary	Indirectly elected by parliament	Fused; depends on confidence	UK, Germany, India, Japan
Semi-presidential	President directly elected; PM responsible to legislature	Mixed	France, Russia

Three Types of Executive Power

$\text{Executive Power}=\text{Formal Powers}+\text{Partisan Powers}+\text{Informal Powers}$

1. Formal Powers (constitutional/legal):

Power	Description
Veto	Reject legislation; legislature may override
Decree	Force of law without passing through legislature
Executive order	Directs bureaucracy on how to implement law
State of emergency	Temporarily suspends rights/guarantees
Dissolving legislature	Disbands parliament → new elections
Impeachment	Legislative process to remove an executive
Term limits	Constitutional cap on time in office

Checks on executive: periodic elections, constitutional limitations, separation of powers, term limits.

Legislative mechanisms: censure, withholding funds, impeachment (presidential) / vote of no confidence (parliamentary).

2. Partisan Powers — leverage over party members via control of candidate lists. Where executives control party lists, legislators have strong incentives to remain loyal. Where candidates are chosen in primaries, legislators are more loyal to constituents → weaker executive partisan leverage.

3. Informal Powers — based on custom, convention, influence:

• Bully pulpit — shape public debate through speeches/media
• Power to persuade (Neustadt) — most essential presidential power
• Patronage — using government favors (employment) for political support
• Clientelism — exchanging government employment/services for political support

Coalitions

A coalition is two or more parties that govern by sharing executive power. Common under PR systems. Junior partners demand cabinet portfolios for joining.

Coalition Type	Logic
Minimum winning	No surplus parties; removing any one party drops below 50%
Minimum connected winning	Minimum winning AND all parties are ideologically adjacent
Minimum size	Closest possible to 50%+1 threshold
Minimum number of parties	Fewest parties to form a majority
Grand coalition	Major parties form supermajority; used in national crises
Minority government	No majority; government is tenuous

Exam Alert

Know the distinction between minimum winning, minimum connected winning, and minimum size — these are frequently tested. Key: surplus parties, ideological adjacency, seat minimization.

Presidentialism vs. Parliamentarism Debate

Exam Alert

Know Linz’s 5 arguments AND the Mainwaring/Shugart critique.

Juan Linz’s case for parliamentarism — 5 problems with presidentialism:

Problem	Presidential	Parliamentary
Legitimacy	Competing (president vs. legislature)	Clear (executive clearly heads government)
Terms	Fixed (hard to remove unpopular executive)	Flexible (confidence vote removes executive)
Power structure	Winner-take-all	Power-sharing coalitions
Leadership style	Tends toward authoritarian/bombastic	Negotiates and compromises
Executive type	Political outsiders more likely	Insiders with decades of experience

Linz’s conclusion: Presidential systems are more likely to collapse into authoritarianism.

Mainwaring & Shugart’s critique:

• Theoretical: a PM with strong majority can be more winner-take-all than a president
• Empirical: presidentialism is most common in poorer countries (Latin America, Africa); it may be wealth, not system type, causing democratic success
• Selection bias: parliamentary systems also more common in small, island, and former British-colony countries

Correlation Is Not Causation

Just because parliamentary Germany is more democratic than presidential Iran doesn’t mean parliamentarism causes democracy. Must control for confounding variables — especially wealth and colonial heritage.

Delegative Democracy (O’Donnell)

An elected president governs however they see fit; power concentrated in executive; few checks from courts or legislature; respects elections but minimal horizontal accountability. Common in developing world. Different from authoritarianism (elections occur) and from liberal democracy (accountability is minimal).

Populism (Roberts)

Leaders establish personalistic links with “the people”; tends to emerge when other institutions are weak. Key: it’s about personalistic leadership style and weak institutions, NOT necessarily excessive spending (1990s populists like Fujimori implemented neoliberal reforms).

Consociational Democracy (Lijphart)

Formal mechanisms to coordinate different groups sharing power. Examples: Netherlands/Austria (grand coalition cabinets), Colombia (alternating the presidency), Lebanon (executive posts divided by religion).

Country Quick Reference

Country	System	Key Feature
USA	Presidential	Electoral college; relatively weak partisan powers; strong judicial review
UK	Parliamentary	Westminster model; strong partisan powers; parliamentary sovereignty; monarch as ceremonial head
France	Semi-presidential	President + PM; president can dissolve legislature
Germany	Parliamentary	Chancellor chosen by Bundestag; constructive vote of no confidence; ceremonial president
Brazil	Presidential	Directly elected; can issue decrees; historically weak partisan powers
Russia	Semi-presidential	President directly elected; Putin wielded power as both president and PM
Iran	Complex	Elected president exists, but real power: Supreme Leader (ayatollah) + Guardian Council
China	Authoritarian	President = Communist Party leader = commander-in-chief
Mexico	Presidential	Plurality wins; no re-election; PRI used dedazo to pick successors until ~2000

---

Unit 8 — Legislatures and Elections (Chapter 10)

What Legislatures Do

Primary functions:

1. Legislating — proposing and passing bills
2. Power of the purse — controlling government budgets (major check on executive)
3. Oversight — scrutinizing the executive (testimony, reports, questioning ministers)
4. Focusing national debate — arena where public issues are contested

Secondary functions: socializing politicians, constituent service, electoral survival.

Unicameral vs. Bicameral

	Unicameral	Bicameral
Chambers	One	Two
Common where	Small populations, unitary states, homogeneous societies	Large/federal countries, heterogeneous populations
Examples	Scandinavia, much of sub-Saharan Africa, China	USA, UK, Germany, Brazil, Canada

Lower chamber — larger, more directly representative (House of Representatives, House of Commons). Upper chamber — smaller, often represents territorial units like states/provinces (Senate, House of Lords).

US Exception

In most bicameral systems, the lower chamber is more powerful. The United States Senate has at least as much power as the House — a notable exception.

Congress vs. Parliament

	Congress (USA)	Parliament (UK)
Head of government	President (separately elected)	PM (chosen by parliament)
Executive dependence	No — separation of powers	Yes — confidence of legislature
Power structure	Checks and balances	Parliamentary supremacy

Electoral Systems

Exam Alert

Know the key trade-offs between SMD and PR — this is a core exam topic.

1. Single-Member District (SMD)

Each district elects one representative; candidate with most votes wins.

• First-past-the-post (plurality) — most votes wins even without majority
• Runoff — if no majority in round 1, top two compete again

Properties:

• Candidate-centred
• Favors large parties over small ones
• Strong geographic voter-representative link
• Can produce disproportionate outcomes (2005 UK: Labour won 55% of seats with 35% of vote; Lib Dems won 9.6% of seats with 22% of vote)

2. Proportional Representation (PR)

Voters choose a party; seats allocated proportionally to party vote share. Uses a threshold (commonly 5%) to prevent extreme fragmentation.

• Party-centred
• Supports multiparty systems and smaller parties
• Usually requires coalition governments
• Open-list PR (Brazil, many European countries): voters choose an individual candidate; votes aggregated by party for seat allocation → weaker party discipline

3. Mixed / Hybrid Systems

Two votes: one for a local district candidate, one for a party. District seats filled by plurality. Additional “at-large” seats ensure the overall legislature is proportional to party vote.

Overhang seats: if a party wins more district seats than its party-vote share entitles it to, it keeps those extra seats (so the legislature’s total size is not fixed).

Example: Germany and New Zealand (MMP). New Zealand switched from first-past-the-post to MMP by referendum in 1993.

4. Preferential / Ranking Systems

System	How	Where
Alternative Vote (AV) / Instant-Runoff	Rank candidates; lowest eliminated, votes redistributed until majority	Australia (House)
Single Transferable Vote (STV)	Used in MMD; winners’ surplus votes redistributed	Ireland

Advantage: reduces strategic voting — voters can honestly pick their first preference.

Electoral Systems Summary

System	How Voter Votes	How Winner Determined
SMD (plurality)	Choose one candidate	Most votes elected
PR	Choose one party	Seats allocated proportionally
Open-list PR	Choose one candidate	Votes aggregated by party; seats by party share
Mixed / Hybrid	Two votes (candidate + party)	Districts by plurality; totals adjusted for PR
Alternative Vote	Rank candidates	Redistribution until majority
STV	Rank candidates	Surplus votes reallocated until slate chosen

Representation and Its Problems

Apportionment — distributing seats among constituencies. Districting — drawing geographic boundaries. Gerrymandering — drawing districts in irregular shapes to achieve a desired political outcome. Malapportionment — some regions have many more legislators per capita than others.

Malapportionment — U.S. Senate

Wyoming: ~1 senator per 250,000 people. California: ~1 senator per 18 million. The 25 least-populous states control 50 senators — a majority — while representing ~16% of the population.

SMD vs. PR core trade-off: Is representation choosing a platform/party or voting for a specific candidate closest to one’s views? MMP attempts to provide both through two votes.

Executive-Legislative Relations

Removing the executive:

• Parliamentary: Vote of no confidence → government falls → new elections. Germany’s variant: constructive vote of no confidence (must simultaneously propose a replacement government → promotes stability)
• Presidential: Impeachment — stringent; requires specific offences

Divided government (especially USA): executive of one party, legislature controlled by another. Causes: ticket-splitting, voter desire to moderate policy. Can check overreach or cause gridlock.

Party discipline: high where executive controls candidate lists (PR systems). Low where candidates chosen in primaries (candidate-centred systems).

Mezey’s Typology of Legislatures

Policymaking Power	Level of Support	Type
Strong	High	Active (U.S. Congress)
Modest	High	Reactive (British Parliament)
Any	Minimal	Minimal (authoritarian rubber-stamp)

---

Master Definitions List

Strategy

The exam provides 20 definitions; you choose 15. Know all of these cold — especially the distinguishing feature and an example for each. Responses showing complete understanding earn full marks.

Unit 1 Definitions

Comparative Politics The subfield of political science that aims to analyze multiple cases using the comparative method. Involves systematic comparison to explain why and how things happen in the public realm.

Empirical Study Development of studies based on facts and observations. Concerned with what is, not what should be.

Normative Arguments Arguments that advance particular outcomes; concerned with the way things should be. E.g., “What is the best political system?”

Operationalization The process of defining variables based on concepts so they can be measured. E.g., operationalizing “nationalism” by counting party affiliation, flag displays, or survey responses.

Hypothesis A testable statement about the expected relationship between variables. Must be falsifiable — capable of being proven false.

Falsifiability The requirement that a hypothesis must be capable of being proven false. A claim that cannot be tested or refuted is not a scientific hypothesis.

Dependent Variable (Y) The variable that is affected or caused by another variable. The outcome being explained.

Independent Variable (X) The variable that causes or affects another variable. The presumed cause.

Deductive Reasoning Starting with a general idea or existing theory and testing it with specific case studies.

Inductive Reasoning Beginning with specific observations and building a more general argument from this starting point.

Correlation When two or more variables move together (positive: same direction; negative: opposite directions). Correlation does not imply causation.

Causation The assertion that an independent variable (X) causes a dependent variable (Y) to occur: $X\to Y$.

Spurious Correlation An apparent relationship between variables where no true causal relationship exists — a third variable (Z) actually causes both X and Y.

Intervening Variable A variable that mediates the relationship between X and Y: $X\to Z\to Y$.

Endogeneity A situation where two variables exhibit mutual or reciprocal effects ($X\leftrightarrow Y$), creating vicious or virtuous circles.

Reverse Causation When the causal direction is opposite to what was hypothesized: Y causes X instead of X causing Y.

Most-Similar-Cases (MSS) Design A case study design that compares cases alike in many ways but differing on a key variable, in order to analyze what that difference causes. Treats shared characteristics as controls.

Most-Different-Cases (MDS) Design A case study design that compares cases that differ greatly but share a key outcome, in order to identify what variable they share in common that might explain the shared outcome.

Tendency Statements Conclusions in comparative politics that indicate general patterns rather than absolute claims.

Proxy Measures Indirect measures used when a concept cannot be directly measured. E.g., GDP per capita as a proxy for standard of living.

Unit 5 Definitions

Political Economy The study of how politics and economics interact — how public institutions affect the economy and how economic change affects politics.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) The total market value of all goods and services produced within a country’s borders in one year. Per capita GDP divides by population.

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) An adjustment to income measures that accounts for differences in the cost of living across countries.

Gini Coefficient The most common measure of income inequality: 0 = perfect equality; 1 = maximum inequality.

Shadow Economy The totality of economic activity outside official state regulation, not counted in official GDP. Includes grey and black markets.

Grey Market Trade in legal goods through unofficial, unregulated, or unlicensed channels — typically to evade taxes or licensing requirements.

Black Market Trade in illegal goods or heavily restricted transactions prohibited by the state.

Neoliberalism The economic ideology holding that free markets, private property, and minimal state intervention produce the most efficient outcomes. Associated with Hayek, Friedman, Thatcher, and Reagan.

Fiscal Policy Government taxing and spending used to shape economic performance (stimulus, austerity).

Monetary Policy Shaping the money supply and currency value, typically through a central bank, to influence inflation and economic activity.

Welfare State State provision of social well-being — pensions, unemployment insurance, health care, disability benefits, and social assistance.

De-commodification (Esping-Andersen) The degree to which the welfare state frees individuals from dependence on the labor market for their survival and well-being. Social democratic regimes score highest.

Human Development Index (HDI) A UN composite measure combining income, life expectancy, and educational attainment into a single annual index of development across countries.

Development A process by which a society changes or advances, most commonly measured by GDP growth but also by poverty reduction, HDI, gender equity, happiness, cultural autonomy, and environmental sustainability.

Path Dependence The concept that once a society goes down a certain institutional path, it becomes progressively harder to diverge from it — history is “sticky.”

Dependency Theory The argument that low-income countries cannot simply embrace free trade because this locks them into a structurally subordinate position — selling low-value primary goods while importing high-value manufactured goods.

World Systems Theory (Wallerstein) Divides the global economy into Core (dominant, profit-accumulating), Periphery (supplying raw materials and cheap labour), and Semi-periphery (partial industrialization). Development in the periphery requires overcoming structural disadvantages in the international capitalist order.

Social Capital Advantages held by individuals or groups by virtue of their social relationships. Bonding capital = dense internal ties. Bridging capital = networks extending outward to reach new people and opportunities.

Unit 6 Definitions

Constitution Fundamental and supreme laws, usually written in a charter, that establish the basis of a political system and the basis for other laws — the “law above all other law.”

Constitutionalism The limitation of government through a constitution; the principle of limited, accountable government.

Constitutional Design Features of constitutions that shape the basic features of the political system — separation of powers, responsibilities between levels of government, and other institutional structures.

Codified Constitution A constitution in which all core constitutional rules are consolidated into a single authoritative written document that stands as the supreme law of the land, above ordinary legislation.

Uncodified Constitution A constitution in which constitutional rules are dispersed across multiple statutes, historical documents, judicial precedents, and conventions, with no single authoritative supreme text. The UK is the primary example.

Rigid Constitution A constitution that is difficult to amend. Constitutional amendments require a supermajority — agreement of a specific number of subnational governments and/or more than 50% support in the legislature. The opposite of a flexible constitution. The USA has a rigid constitution.

Flexible Constitution A constitution that can be changed by a simple majority of the legislature. The UK is the primary example.

Federalism A system of government with constitutional separation of powers between a central government and subnational governments (states, provinces, regions), each with some degree of constitutionally protected autonomy.

Unitarism A system of government in which the central government is predominant and the powers of subnational governments are limited to those delegated by the center. Only the central government is specified in the constitutional charter.

Judicial Review The process by which national courts examine the constitutionality of laws passed by the legislature and executive. Courts can strike down unconstitutional laws. The USA is the primary example.

Parliamentary Sovereignty A system in which the constitutionality of laws is not subject to constitutional interpretation by the judiciary — the legislature is the supreme authority and courts cannot strike down legislation. The UK is the primary example.

Judicial Activism A term (often pejorative) characterizing judicial actions that actively reinterpret legislation — implying judges are exercising powers typically reserved for the legislative branch (“legislating from the bench”).

Juristocracy (Hirschl) Governance systems characterized by an exceptionally powerful judiciary. Hirschl argues this tends to serve elite interests rather than expanding democratic rights.

Constitutional Theocracy (Hirschl) A system in which constitutional law is combined with recognition of an official state religion and use of religious beliefs or texts as a foundation for law.

Soft Budget Constraint In federal systems, the condition in which subnational governments overspend because they know the central government will bail them out, undermining fiscal responsibility.

Constituent Assembly A body convened to draft or adopt a new constitution. Signals a break with the past rather than continuity (contrast with amendment).

Separation of Powers The division of powers in a government system between branches of government (executive, legislative, judicial) or between levels of government.

Unit 7 Definitions

Executive The branch of government (or individual at its top) that executes or administers policies and laws.

Bureaucracy The organization of unelected officials, considered part of the executive branch, that implements, executes, and enforces laws and policies.

Head of State A person with executive functions who is a country’s symbolic representative (elected presidents or unelected monarchs).

Head of Government The top executive official responsible for forming governments and formulating and implementing policies.

Presidentialism A system in which a president serves as chief executive, being independent of the legislature and often combining head of state and head of government.

Parliamentarism A system in which the head of government is elected by and accountable to a parliament or legislature.

Semi-presidential System A hybrid combining aspects of presidentialism and parliamentarism — features both a directly elected president and a PM responsible to the legislature.

Formal Powers Powers possessed by a political actor as a function of their constitutional or legal position (veto, decree, state of emergency, etc.).

Partisan Powers Powers accruing to an executive by virtue of their leverage over members of a political party — typically through control of candidate lists.

Informal Powers Powers not “official” but based on custom, convention, or influence — bully pulpit, power to persuade, patronage, clientelism.

Veto An executive act rejecting a law passed by a legislature. The legislature may override with a supermajority.

Decree An executive-made order that has the force of law despite not passing through the legislature.

Impeachment A legislative process to determine whether a top executive official should be removed from office.

Vote of No Confidence A vote by a legislature expressing lack of support for the government; if successful, results in dissolution of the government and new elections.

Constructive Vote of No Confidence A variant (Germany) in which a majority voting no confidence must simultaneously propose a replacement government, ensuring governmental continuity.

Coalition A group of two or more political parties that governs by sharing executive power and responsibilities.

Minimum Winning Coalition A governing coalition containing no surplus parties beyond those required to form a government.

Minimum Connected Winning Coalition A minimum winning coalition in which all parties are ideologically adjacent to one another on the political spectrum.

Grand Coalition A coalition of two or more major parties holding a supermajority; used in national crises.

Delegative Democracy (O’Donnell) A type of democracy in which an elected president governs however they see fit; power concentrated in the executive; few checks from courts or legislature; elections occur but horizontal accountability is minimal.

Populism A political approach in which leaders make direct appeals to “the people” and establish personalistic ties with the masses; associated with weak institutional constraints on the executive.

Clientelism The practice of exchanging political favors (government employment or services) for political support.

Patronage The use of government favors, typically employment, to garner political support.

Consociational Arrangements (Lijphart) Systems that use formal mechanisms to coordinate different groups sharing access to power; associated with consensus-building in divided societies.

Unit 8 Definitions

Legislature Assembly or body of representatives with the authority to make laws.

Bicameral Legislature A legislature with two chambers, which may have equal or unequal powers.

Unicameral Legislature A legislature with a single chamber.

Single-Member District (SMD) An electoral system in which voters choose a candidate and the winner is elected by the most votes earned (plurality or runoff).

First-Past-the-Post An electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes is elected, regardless of whether a majority has been attained.

Proportional Representation (PR) An electoral system in which voters choose a preferred party and seats are allocated to parties according to percentage of vote won.

Open-List Proportional Representation A PR variant in which voters choose a candidate but votes are aggregated by party to determine seat allocation; candidates with most votes within their party gain seats first.

Alternative Vote (AV) / Instant-Runoff Voters rank candidates; the lowest-ranked candidate is eliminated and their votes redistributed until a winner has a majority.

Single Transferable Vote (STV) Used in multi-member districts; voters rank candidates; winners’ surplus votes are reallocated until a full slate is chosen.

Strategic Voting Voting in a way that does not reflect a voter’s ideal preference, so as to prevent a less-desired outcome.

Apportionment The process by which legislative seats are distributed among geographic constituencies.

Gerrymandering Creation of districts of irregular shape or composition to achieve a desired political result — typically to entrench incumbents.

Malapportionment Apportionment in which voters are unequally represented — typically more legislators per capita in low-population areas.

Overhang Seats In mixed-member proportional systems, extra seats retained by a party that won more district seats than its party-vote share would normally entitle it to.

Representation In legislatures, the process by which elected legislators reflect the interests and preferences of voters in their constituencies.

Constituency A group of voters or geographic district that legislators or other elected officials represent.

---

Key Scholars Quick Reference

Scholar	Work	Argument
Juan Linz	”The Perils of Presidentialism” (1990)	5 reasons parliamentary > presidential for democracy
Mainwaring & Shugart	”Juan Linz, Presidentialism, and Democracy” (1997)	Wealth and colonial heritage may explain democracy correlation, not system type
Guillermo O’Donnell	”Delegative Democracy” (1994)	Some presidential systems concentrate executive power without becoming fully authoritarian
Kenneth Roberts	”Neoliberalism and Populism in Latin America” (1995)	Populism = personalistic leadership + weak institutions, not excessive spending
Arend Lijphart	”Consociational Democracy” (1969)	Power-sharing through grand coalitions can sustain democracy in divided societies
William Riker	Federalism (1964)	Federalism results from bargains; less significant in practice than assumed
Alfred Stepan	”Federalism and Democracy” (1999)	“Holding together” federalism; asymmetrical arrangements; not all follow US model
Ran Hirschl	Towards Juristocracy (2007)	Expanding judicial review protects elite interests; coined “juristocracy” and “constitutional theocracy”
Wallace Oates	Fiscal Federalism (1972)	Decentralization theorem: local governments have better information → sorting by policy preference
Rodden & Wibbels	”Beyond the Fiction of Federalism” (2002)	Federal fiscal performance depends on own-source taxes vs. central transfers + political parties
Gøsta Esping-Andersen	Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism	Liberal / Corporatist / Social Democratic welfare regimes; de-commodification
Immanuel Wallerstein	The Modern World System	Core-Periphery-Semi-periphery structure; development requires overcoming structural disadvantages
Daron Acemoglu et al.	”Colonial Origins of Comparative Development”	Colonial legacies → path-dependent institutional arrangements → development outcomes
Atul Kohli	State-Directed Development	State + private business must “pull in the same direction” (chariot metaphor)
Hannah Pitkin	The Concept of Representation (1967)	Mandate vs. independence view of representation; no absolute rule